Reading
for Students:
Macartney and the Emperor Many
Europeans had contact with China over the centuries. When Marco Polo
traveled to China in the thirteenth century, he found European artisans
already at the court of the Great Khan. In the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, priests such as the Italian Matteo Ricci journeyed to
China, learned Chinese, and tried to make their religion more acceptable
to the Chinese. These contacts were made usually by individual entrepreneurs
or solitary missionaries. Although some Western science, art, and
architecture was welcomed by the Qing court, attempts to convert
Chinese to Christianity were by and large unsuccessful. More importantly,
the Chinese state did not lend its support to creating a significant
number of specialists in Western thinking.
Direct oceanic trade between China and Europe began during the sixteenth
century. At first it was dominated by the Portuguese and the Spanish,
who brought silver from the Americas to exchange for Chinese silks.
Later they were joined by the British and the Dutch. Initially trading
took place at several ports along the Chinese coast, but gradually
the state limited Western trade to the southern port of Canton (Guangzhou).
Here there were wealthy Chinese merchants who had been given monopoly
privileges by the emperor to trade with foreigners. Merchant guilds
trading with foreigners were known as "hongs," a Westernization
of hang, or street. The original merchant associations had been organized
by streets. The merchants of the selected hongs were also among the
only Chinese merchants with enough money to buy large amounts of
goods produced inland and have them ready for the foreign traders
when they came once a year to make their purchases. The Chinese court
also favored trading at one port because it could more easily collect
taxes on the goods traded if all trade was carried on in one place
under the supervision of an official appointed by the emperor. Such
a system would make it easier to control the activities of the foreigners
as well. So in the 1750s trade was restricted to Canton (Guangzhou),
and foreigners coming to China in their sail-powered ships were allowed
to reside only on the island of Macao as they awaited favorable winds
to return home.
For many years this system was acceptable to both the Chinese and
the Europeans. As the demand for tea increased, however, and the
Industrial Revolution led them to seek more markets for their manufactured
goods, the British began to try to expand their trade opportunities
in China and establish Western-style diplomatic relations with the
Chinese. This brought them immediately into conflict with the Chinese
government, which was willing to allow trade without diplomatic relations,
but would only allow diplomatic relations within the traditional
tribute system that had evolved out of centuries of Chinese cultural
leadership in Asia. In exchange for trading privileges in the capital
and recognition of their ruler, neighboring states would send so-called
tribute missions to China. These envoys brought gifts for the emperor
and performed a series of bows called the "kow-tow" (koutou).
Aside from a handful of foreigners who lived permanently in Peking
(Beijing) and served the emperor, foreigners only visited the capital
on such tribute missions. Therefore, when British citizens came to
Peking in the late eighteenth century, their purpose was misunderstood.
When they refused to follow the centuries-old system of tribute relations
and began demanding both expanded trade and the establishment of
embassies in the capital, they were immediately resisted and seen
as challenging the Chinese way of life.
One of the most famous British attempts to expand trade with China
demonstrates the miscommunication between the two nations. Lord Macartney
(George Macartney, 1737-1806) led a mission in 1793 to the court
of the Qianlong emperor (1711-1799; r. 1736-1796) of China. This
emperor reigned over perhaps the most luxurious court in all Chinese
history. He had inherited a full treasury, and his nation seemed
strong and wealthy enough to reach its greatest size ever and also
to attain a splendor that outdazzled even the best Europe could then
offer.
King George III (1738-1820) of England sent Macartney to convince
the Chinese emperor to open northern port cities to British traders
and to allow British ships to be repaired on Chinese territory. Macartney
arrived in North China in a warship with a retinue of 95, an artillery
of 50 redcoats, and 600 packages of magnificent presents that required
90 wagons, 40 barrows, 200 horses, and 3,000 porters to carry them
to Peking. Yet the best gifts of the kind of England had to offer
— elaborate clocks, globes, porcelain — seemed insignificant
beside the splendors of the Asian court. Taken on a yacht trip around
the palace, Macartney stopped to visit 50 pavilions, each "furnished
in the richest manner . . . that our presents must shrink from the
comparison and hide their diminished heads," he later wrote.** Immediately
the Chinese labeled his mission as "tribute," and
the emperor refused to listen to British demands. He also ordered
Macartney to perform the kow-tow and dashed off the following reply
to the British king.
**From Frederick Wakeman, Jr., The Fall of Imperial
China (Free Press, 1977), 101.
Acknowledgments: The consultants for this unit were Drs. Madeleine
Zelin and Sue Gronewold, specialists in modern Chinese history.
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