• The Qin (221- 206 BCE) and subsequent Han (202 BCE- 222 CE) dynasties unify China and establish a centralized empire, which endures and evolves down through 20th century. The imperial structure draws on elements of both Legalist and Confucian thought. (Note: the Western word for "China" probably comes from the Romanized spelling of Qin, which is pronounced and also spelled "Ch'in," while the Chinese refer to themselves as "the people of Han.")

• The Chinese empire is founded when the state of Qin unites the other Chinese states in 221 BCE and establishes a centralized system of government; Qin Shi Huangdi (Ch'in Shih Huang-ti), or the First Emperor of Qin, rules for a very short time (221-206 BCE) but lays the foundation for China's imperial structure and begins construction of the Great Wall for defense to the north. At his death, an army of life-sized terra cotta warriors is buried near his tomb. (These terra cotta warriors were first discovered in 1974 and have been the subject of exhibitions, magazine articles, and books since that time.

• The Qin follows the Legalist proposals for state order and establishes a centralized bureaucracy and a finely detailed law code with specified punishments for each crime.

• The Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) follows the short-lived Qin and rules China for 300 years. The Han greatly expands the Chinese empire. The Han dynasty retains the centralized bureaucracy and unified political system of the Qin but adopts and grafts upon this the Confucian view that government should be run by educated, ethical men.

• The Han Empire and the Roman Empire exist simultaneously at opposite ends of the Eurasian continent. The Chinese and Roman empires trade through intermediates on the overland route through Central Asia, the "Silk Road." Chinese silk was an especially prized commodity in Rome, as silk production (sericulture) was known only to the Chinese.

• After the Han dynasty disintegrates in the 3rd century, China experiences a 300-year period of political fragmentation; nomadic tribes dominate northern China while a series of Chinese dynasties succeed one another in the south. It is during this period that Buddhism is introduced into China from India, following trade routes.

Timeline of Chinese History

It may be useful at this point to review a timeline of Chinese history and dynasties, noting the patterns evident in the Han and that recur over the course of Chinese history:

• The cycle of long periods of political unity (the Han, Tang, Song, Ming, and Qing dynasties each govern for 250-300 years) are interspersed by periods of political disunity;

• Note the pattern of territorial pressure and incursions from China's north by nomadic groups, who are attracted by the wealth of the settled, agricultural civilization of China. The most illustrative examples are those of the Mongols, who conquer China and establish the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 CE), and of the Manchus, who again conquer China and establish the last dynasty, the Qing, that rules for 300 years (1644-1911 CE). Each of these invaders rules through the Chinese bureaucracy, leading to the expression that China "sinicizes its conquerors."

• Note the patterns of cultural continuity: the evolution of the bureaucratic structure — the civil service examination system, the scholar-gentry who sit for exams and staff the civil administration; the refinement of the Confucian classics as the basis of education and elite selection; the growth of commercial activity and the development of a unified and sophisticated marketing system over the vast, economically diverse area of China; the tendency toward political unification and reunification.

• Note the pattern of dynastic formation, ascendance, and decline, which is often referred to as the "dynastic cycle." The last years of many dynasties were marked by inefficient administration and corruption, which, when compounded by natural calamities such as flood or droughts, led to social unrest among the population. Movements and rebellions incorporating popular religious ideas took place in the last years of the Han, Yuan, and Qing dynasties, while political rebellions brought down the Tang and Ming dynasties. (This is when the Chinese often say a dynasty has lost the "Mandate of Heaven.")